Publications

4492

AbstractBACKGROUNDAutophagy is a conserved mechanism by which eukaryotic organisms defend against pathogen infection. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the role of autophagy in the interactions of insect vectors with the phloem‐limited bacterial pathogen remain unclear. The citrus Huanglongbing (HLB)‐associated pathogen ‘Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus’ (CLas) seriously endangers development of the citrus industry. It spreads via Diaphorina citri in a persistent and propagative manner.RESULTSIn this study, a total of 30 autophagy‐related genes (ATG) were identified in the D. citri genome, among which multiple genes were significantly regulated after CLas infection. Concurrently, CLas infection also leads to an increased number of autophagosomes and enhanced accumulation of ATG8‐II. Ultrastructural observations revealed the presence of bacterial‐like structures within autophagosomes in the midgut of CLas‐infected D. citri. Furthermore, both activation and inhibition of autophagy significantly influenced CLas titers. However, autophagy cannot completely eliminate CLas in D. citri. We identified a CLas effector, SDE4040 (CLIBASIA_04040), that interacts with DcATG8 and co‐localizes on autophagosomes in D. citri. Co‐expression of SDE4040 and DcATG8 induces autophagy in Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9) cells.CONCLUSIONTaken together, these results indicate that CLas infection activates the autophagy pathway in D. citri, contributing to a reduction in bacterial titer. Our data also revealed that CLas may trigger complex interactions with the insect. © 2025 Society of Chemical Industry.

ABSTRACTSesame phyllody, a destructive disease caused by phytoplasma infection, induces severe morphological abnormalities, including floral virescence, phyllody, witches' broom, leaf deformation, and stunted growth. This study aimed to characterize phytoplasma isolates from diverse regions of India, identifying them as Candidatus Phytoplasma asteris (16Sr‐I), Candidatus Phytoplasma citri (16Sr‐II), and Candidatus Phytoplasma australasia (16Sr‐II). Whole‐genome sequencing of Candidatus Phytoplasma asteris isolate SPGN revealed a genome size of 563,754 bp, encoding 542 proteins, including several genes associated with antibiotic resistance. Effector prediction analysis identified key virulence‐associated proteins, such as SAP50‐like, SAP34‐like, TENGU‐su inducer, and immunodominant membrane proteins, which manipulate host development and immune responses. Transcriptomic analysis of infected sesame plants revealed significant gene expression alterations, with upregulated genes linked to floral malformation, vascular tissue modifications, and stress responses, while the downregulated genes were associated with flavonoid metabolism and immune signaling. Phytoplasma infection disrupted hormonal pathways, leading to increased expression of auxin, cytokinin, and gibberellin‐related genes, suggesting hormonal dysregulation as a key factor in symptom development. Furthermore, immune suppression was evident through the downregulation of key defense‐related genes, including those involved in MAPK signaling and pathogenesis‐related protein families. These findings enhance our understanding of phytoplasma pathogenesis in sesame and provide potential targets for developing effective disease management strategies.

‘Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus’ (CLas), the agent associated with the Huanglongbing citrus disease, is commonly detected using quantitative PCR (qPCR) with hydrolysis probes. Internal standards are typically included in the qPCR assays to reduce the risk of false negatives caused by inhibitors. When the internal standard is detected but CLas is not, it is generally assumed that the pathogen is absent from the tested sample. However, our study shows that trace amounts of CLas may go undetected if the internal standard is either overly abundant or too dissimilar to CLas. To overcome these limitations, we developed a synthetic internal standard (IS) that uses the same primer as the CLas target sequence, along with three to four downstream nucleotides, but with a unique internal sequence derived from smooth hammerhead shark (Sphyrna zygaena; IS-SHK). This sequence matches the guanine-cytosine content and melting temperature of the CLas target and was specifically selected to minimize potential interference from other nucleic acid materials in citrus samples. To minimize competition between the IS-SHK standard and the CLas target, an average of only 21 molecules of IS-SHK standard is added to each qPCR reaction. Therefore, when IS-SHK standard is detected at expected levels and CLas is not, the absence of CLas is confirmed rather than inhibition of the detection. Conversely, the absence of both IS-SHK standard and CLas suggests the presence of a qPCR inhibitor, warranting retesting of the sample.

Abstract Citrus greening disease, caused by ‘Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus’, severely impacts citrus production worldwide. The development of sustainable control strategies for this disease is restricted by the unavailability of the bacterium in pure culture. Herein, the metabolic profile of the waxworm larvae, Galleria mellonella, was compared to that of Diaphorina citri, the vector of ‘Ca. L. asiaticus’. Our findings showed that G. mellonella larvae possess the nutritional needs to host ‘Ca. L. asiaticus’, supporting its short-term persistence, and responds to infection with a visible immune reaction by producing melanin upon bacterial invasion. The inoculated larvae exhibit detectable bacterial titers for up to four days when inoculated with infected citrus phloem sap or D. citri haemolymph, after which bacterial titers decline, and infected larvae show reduced survival compared to mock-treated and ‘Ca. L. asiaticus’-free controls. Metabolic profiling of G. mellonella, D. citri, and honeybees (Apis mellifera) reveals distinct chemical compositions in their haemolymph. G. mellonella contains higher levels of amino acids, organic acids, nucleotides, and sugar-nucleotides, providing essential nutrients for ‘Ca. L. asiaticus’, while D. citri is enriched in monosaccharides and sugar-alcohols. Citric acid was detected exclusively in the haemolymph of G. mellonella. These findings suggest G. mellonella as a convenient model that can transiently host ‘Ca. L. asiaticus’ for short-term use, which would facilitate high-throughput screening of antimicrobial compounds against ‘Ca. L. asiaticus’, as well as exploring host-pathogen interactions. This model could accelerate the development of effective treatments against citrus greening and inform broader strategies for managing vector-borne plant diseases.

ABSTRACT Polyphosphate-accumulating organisms (PAOs) are the main bacteria responsible for phosphorus removal and recovery in full-scale wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). They encompass members of the genera Candidatus Accumulibacter, Azonexus (formerly Dechloromonas ), and Candidatus Phosphoribacter (formerly Tetrasphaera ), with most studies focusing on Ca . Accumulibacter, primarily using lab-scale enrichment cultures. Although members from the three genera often co-exist in full-scale WWTPs, the metabolic capabilities and traits that determine the niche differentiation of the specific species are still unknown. We retrieved 214 high-quality metagenome-assembled genomes from a full-scale plant with phosphorus removal and examined the polyphosphate-related metabolic pathways using genome-resolved metatranscriptomics in the different process tanks in situ and by using short-term incubations ex situ . We observed the co-existence of nine uncultured PAO species from the three genera with clear niche differentiation in the utilization of different carbon sources and involvement in the denitrification process. Additionally, we observed several physiological differences among species of the same genus, indicating variations in niche specialization. This suggests that biological P removal and other processes in full-scale WWTPs are carried out by a complex and diverse PAO community that together ensures stable plant performance. IMPORTANCE The current understanding of the ecology and physiology of polyphosphate-accumulating organisms (PAOs) is mostly based on Candidatus Accumulibacter, primarily studied in enriched lab-scale studies. Recent taxonomic reclassification revealed that the most studied Ca . Accumulibacter species are either not present or present in low abundance in full-scale wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). This raises concerns that knowledge from lab-scale studies may not apply to species in full-scale plants. Additionally, the indication of a distinct PAO physiology in Candidatus Phosphoribacter compared to Ca . Accumulibacter and the other abundant PAO Ca . Azonexus poses further questions about the accuracy of the current PAO model. Here, we show that in full-scale plant species from Ca . Accumulibacter, Ca . Azonexus, and Ca . Phosphoribacter always co-exist, and they have distinct niche separations in terms of carbon source utilization and the use of electron acceptors. This co-existence and metabolic diversity indicate that a complex microbial community is crucial for efficient phosphorus removal in full-scale WWTPs.

Abstract Autophagy, a cellular process involved in the degradation and recycling of cellular components, has emerged as a pivotal mechanism for maintaining cellular homeostasis and combating pathogen invasion. Here, we provide evidence that the overexpression of CsATG8c inhibits CLas proliferation in citrus. CsATG8c directly interacts with the CLas effector protein SDE4040, leading to its degradation via the autophagic pathway. The SDE4040 protein acts as a virulence effector, and transgenic citrus plants expressing SDE4040 promote CLas proliferation by suppressing the hypersensitive response (HR) of the host and reducing the levels of jasmonic acid (JA). Collectively, these results demonstrate that ATG8-mediated selective autophagy limits CLas infection by degrading a virulence effector protein, which provides the first evidence for the role of autophagy in combating CLas infection.

Phytoplasmas (‘Candidatus Phytoplasma’) are intracellular pleomorphic plant pathogens belonging to the class Mollicutes. They colonize both plant hosts and insect vectors in their life cycle. Apple proliferation (AP) is one of the most important phytoplasmoses present in Europe, causing significant economic losses in apple production. The causal agent, ‘Ca. P. mali’, was identified in apple and Cacopsylla picta samples using both real-time PCR and nested PCR based on the amplification of 16S rDNA. The objective of this study was to gain deeper insights into the epidemiology of apple proliferation in Croatia. Variability of genetic markers other than 16S rRNA was used for characterization of strains. Four molecular markers differing in level of conservation, aceF, pnp, imp, and secY, were selected in line with previously typed fruit tree phytoplasmas. New genotypes were discerned for each genetic marker, and 20 different sequence types were revealed in the Croatian strains of ‘Ca. P. mali’. On the basis of this comprehensive analysis, the founder sequence type ST1 (A13–P10–S12–I21) can be proposed. This is the first extensive research and multigene typing performed on Croatian ‘Ca. P. mali’ strains. Obtained results reveal considerable genetic diversity of epidemiological relevance limited to only two locations in north-western Croatia. Additionally, novel primers were constructed to amplify fragments larger than the entire coding region for all four genes in order to further expand the phytoplasma multi-locus sequence typing scheme.

Abstract Citrus greening disease, also known as huanglongbing (HLB), is caused by the gram-negative α-proteobacteria Candidatus Liberibacter species. This disease poses a significant threat to citrus production worldwide, including in Nepal. This study aimed to conduct the diagnosis and phylogenetic analysis of the citrus greening pathogen in Nepal using both conventional PCR and computational methods. A total of 1,026 samples were collected from thirteen districts across six provinces in the country. PCR-based diagnosis was performed using the primer set Las606/LSS, which targets the 16S rRNA gene of Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus. Additionally, 16S rRNA gene sequencing was performed using sanger sequencing for five samples collected from different geographical regions. The obtained sequences were deposited in GenBank, and a phylogenetic tree was constructed based on these sequences. Among the 1,026 samples tested, 255 were positive, indicating the widespread distribution of HLB across Nepal. All consensus sequences from Nepal showed strong evolutionary relatedness within the C. L. asiaticus cluster, displayed over 99% genetic similarity with reference sequences from various parts of the world. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the Nepalese sequences were closely related to C. L. asiaticus sequences from India, such as OM522080.1 (Punjab) and MH473394.1 (Meerut). Additionally, sequences obtained from different regions of Nepal clustered closely together. The findings of this research provide valuable insights into the genetic diversity and prevalence of citrus greening disease, which will aid the development of better management strategies to combat this devastating disease. Furthermore, the sequence data deposited in GenBank will serve as a key reference for future molecular studies on citrus greening disease.